For thousands of years, traditional Chinese culture has deemed women less valuable than men, as men were seen as the core of the family. Despite the increasing influence of the West, woman-based resistance, and new legislations in the country, Chinese tradition remains in the minds of many.
Role of Women in Ancient China
When Chinese women entered historical records, it was often because they caused men problems. For example, stories of women scheming to advance their sons in a family of multiple wives and children were very common. Despite this being the fault of the man by marrying more than one woman, the women were the ones questioned for their loyalties.
Fig. 1 Confucius, painted in 1727
In 697 BCE, the daughter of a powerful minister in the state of Zheng discovered from her husband that the ruler had ordered him to kill her father. When speaking with her mother, she advised her "All men are potential husbands, but you have only one father". Upon restating this information to her father, her father killed her husband. The ruler of Zheng placed blame on the man's wife and found him foolish for confiding in her. Adding to the mixed view of women being alongside noble Chinese men, the story enhanced Chinese conceptions of a woman's loyalty, courage, and devotion, as well as her intrigue, manipulation, and selfishness.
Confucius (551 - 479 BCE) greatly encouraged ancestral rights and family virtues such as filial piety. He hoped that through these practices, everyone (male and female, high and low, old and young), would properly fulfill their roles. For a woman, her roles were primarily kinship roles, such as daughter, sister, wife, mother-in-law, mother, etc. In each of these roles, it was crucial that she kept to the wishes and needs of the men in the family: her father when young, her husband when married, and her son/s when widowed.
Filial Piety is the idea of deep respect for one's parents, elders, and ancestors. It is based on Buddhist and Taoist ethics and was incorporated into Confucianism.
Confucius's follower, Mencius, would go on to declare that the worst of unfilial acts was the failure to produce a proper air for the family. This declaration would put even more emphasis on the necessity of sons and the disappointment of birthing a daughter.
Fig. 2 Yin and Yang
During the centuries after Confucius, it became extremely common for writers to refer to men and women as Yin and Yang; women were Yin, and men were Yang. The Yin is known for being soft, receptive, passive, and tranquil, while the Yang is known for being hard, active, dominating, and assertive. It was believed that all natural processes of interaction happen through the Yin and Yang. Stressing the differences between the two means following the order of the natural universe, not institutions constructed by human beings. The two forces complement each other, but not in equal ways. The natural relationship between the two is that the Yang (men) leads while the Yin (women) follows.
As China reached the 20th century, many intellectuals and social activists held many criticisms against the old, traditional views of women and the family system; largely influenced by the country's Cultural Revolution of 1966-1976. President Mao Zedong's famous quote (below) helped push the feminist agenda and fight for equal rights.
Women hold up half the sky - Mao Zedong
Foot binding, widow chastity, parental control of marriage, and concubinage were all eliminated. However, it is important to remember that many women were able to lead successful and comfortable lives under the old system, the odds were just not always in their favor.
Rights of Women in China
Since its foundation in 1949, China has progressed greatly due to imported foreign products, services, and more open-minded Western influence. As a result of this, the Chinese people have been paying closer attention to issues regarding human rights and gender equality, which has pointed them on a path to becoming an open and modern society. In the 1982 Constitution of the People's Republic of China, women were granted the same rights as men. The state protects marriage, the family, mothers, and children. Both the husband and wife in a marriage are expected to be equally responsible for family planning.
Fig. 3 Constitution of the People's Republic of China
Article 33 of the 1982 Constitution of the People's Republic of China - "All citizens of the People's Republic of China are equal before the law"
In addition to the equality promised to women in Article 33, the following laws are fundamental to the legal status of Chinese women- The Marriage Law (1980), The Law of Succession (1985), Law of the Protection of Rights and Interests of Women (1992), and the General Principles of Civil Law (1986).
Historically, China was a solidly patriarchal society where men made all of the decisions. This idea laid the foundation for Chinese men to view women as inferior to them. This, along with regulating women to the low classes of Chinese society, created a mentality that was cemented into their minds for thousands of years. One of the biggest complications in modernizing Chinese society has been the minds of the older generations; at no fault of their own, gender discrimination has been engrained into their everyday lives (despite the changes brought about by foreign influences and Chinese revolutions).
It is often claimed by historians that the status of Chinese women began to decline during the Song period as Neo-Confucianism began to grow. A major sign of this decline was the practice of foot-binding. Foot-binding was introduced by Emperor Li Yu when he fell in love with a concubine who bound her feet tightly for dance. This practice soon became a beauty standard in the imperial court and later made its way to the villages and cities. Chinese mothers would bind their daughter's feet at the ages of 5-8 using strips of cloth and keep the feet from growing outwards and more so upwards (referred to as "lotus feet"). This beauty standard was not only extremely painful, but it also kept many women from having the ability to walk properly, if at all!
Fig. 4 Lotus Foot
Chinese society has functioned on gender inequality for so long that it has made itself completely natural to many citizens. In comparison, Western societies have had distinct moments in history that have allowed them to form very different opinions long before Chinese society ever had the opportunity.
Treatment of Women in China
Chinese women, particularly those in cities, have reported that they are generally given equal treatment and opportunities. However, there is something that continues to exist in Chinese society that contradicts these claims. First, it is widely believed that boys are better than girls in the subjects of math and science (specifically in high school). Many also believe that men are more capable of important work, as they make decisions more objectively and without emotions. These ideas are reflected in the fact that about 97% of government officials and over 70% of surgeons are males. From the 1990s until the present day, the percentage of women in the workforce has dropped from approximately 73% to 60%.
These mentalities however mainly affect women in rural Chinese areas (where the majority of the country's population live), as more women seem to have a greater understanding of their legal rights in larger, more modern cities than those who are more remote. Traditional Chinese culture enforces the idea that a woman's goal in life should be to get married and have children, without doing this, she may later be viewed as a "loser" in life. This has caused many women to yield to societal pressure and marry early, often resulting in unhappy and sometimes abusive marriages.
Fig. 5 Cheng Yi
According to Neo-Confucian philosopher Cheng Yi, "It would be better for a woman to die of starvation than to lose her virtue by remarrying". This placed an incredible amount of pressure not only on widowed women but also on those who are faced with unhappy marriages. If the husband's family did not want to support the woman, or she was childless, the woman would sometimes be pushed as far as suicide.
China's "Leftover Women"
In Chinese history, if a woman is unmarried by the age of 30, she faces the stigma of being "left-over" or "Shengnu," the Chinese equivalent of a spinster. The term was popularized by the Chinese government and encouraged the funding of matchmaking events for singles, further building the idea that unmarried women in their late 20s have a sort of "defect." Regardless of the enormous pressure many Chinese women face to get married, many openly admit to being happier alone.
Chinese women who are happier alone and marry later are also referred to as "career women" or "strong women". Though meant as an insult from men, many modern Chinese women are using it as a title to be proud of!
Before, people thought women should marry early, otherwise they are 'left-over'. But now, people think it's okay for women to put their career in first place, and marriage in second or third place" - Alexia Ping, a college student in Shanghai
China is also facing the reality that around 30 million men are unmarried, with the projection of 2050 being that there will be 186 men for every 100 women in the country. With these high numbers, women can allow themselves to be pickier before settling down. However, despite gaining greater agency in picking a spouse, Chinese women still often take on the traditional responsibilities of cooking, cleaning, raising the children, and making the most sacrifices within the marriage.
Regardless of these issues, China's younger generations have done an amazing job at combating stereotypes and making their desire for human equality clear, and they have developed more courage over the years to pursue their ideas and openly express their views. If this continues, China is expected to make even greater advancements toward full gender equality in the near future! There is now a popular Chinese saying "Yin Sheng, Yang Shuai," meaning the female force is rising while the male force is falling.
Facts About Women in China
- The gender gap in secondary education, between the ages of 25-34, is closed. It is the same percentage for Chinese women as it is for Chinese men.
- In 2019, approximately 56% of Chinese women were enrolled in secondary education as opposed to around 46% of Chinese men.
- Even though the Chinese women's labor force has been declining since the 1990s, the country still holds the Asia-Pacific's highest labor force participation rates.
- The gender pay gap in China continues, with women typically making 70-80% of a man's salary.
- Despite their high labor force participation, there are very few Chinese women in leadership roles, as they make up only 9.5% of the board of directors.
Women in China - Key Takeaways
- For thousands of years, traditional Chinese culture has deemed women to be less valuable than men.
- As China reached the 20th century, many intellectuals and social activists held many criticisms against the old, traditional views of women and the family system.
- Since its foundation in 1949, China has progressed greatly due to imported foreign products, services, and more open-minded Western influence.
- China's younger generations have done an amazing job at making their desire for human equality clear by braving stereotypes and berating to have their ideas and beliefs heard by the masses.
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