Southeast Asian Kingdoms

Knights, horses, kings, jousts, castles, and feudalism; are the hallmark characteristics of what we would typically consider a "kingdom" (at least in a European context), but the Southeast Asian Kingdoms were painted in a different color. Geographically situated between China and India, Southeast Asia was a melting pot of religions, cultures, and commerce by the Indian Ocean and Chinese Seas. Developing upon foreign customs and ideologies, Southeast Asian Kingdoms were not merely the product of Chinese or Indian thought. Instead, the empires and states that arose in Medieval Southeast Asia were wonderfully unique in form and influential in presence, unafraid of meddling in the affairs of seemingly more extraordinary world powers.

The Rise Of Southeast Asian Kingdoms

Thousands of years before the rise of Southeast Asian Kingdoms in the Medieval Era (5th to 15th century CE), the Austronesian-speaking peoples of the region embarked on a special mission of outward migration. Before 6,000 BCE, many of the islands of the Malay Archipelago had been connected due to low sea levels. Even after sea levels rose, separating the islands, the ancient Austronesian peoples found ways to continue traveling.

A new wave of migration and expansion began after 4,000 BCE when sophisticated technological developments in sea travel allowed the Austronesians to spread across Southeast Asia and even Madagascar and Hawaii. This expansion led to a vast geographical landscape in Southeast Asia where distant settlements, separated by thick jungles or entire seas, could develop independently and engage in willful trade with neighbors.

Fig. 1- Map of modern-day Southeast Asia.

Modern-day Myanmar (Burma in the map above), Thailand, Cambodia, Vietnam, Indonesia, and the Philippines had all been settled. Native and distinct Southeast Asian cultures began to arise, such as the Dong Son culture of modern-day Vietnam, notable for its advancements in metallurgy and agricultural techniques. Reminiscent of the initial Malay immigration. However, Southeast Asia was not destined for a history of isolationism and inward growth.

From the north came the swords and soldiers of China, invading Cham to prevent the rise of a powerful neighbor. Chinese soldiers brought their technologies, customs, and religion, especially Buddhism. From the western seas landed Indian merchants, intent not on war but commerce. They transferred Hinduism into Southeast Asia, one of the most impactful religions in the area. By the Medieval Era, India's and China's cultures found a strong foothold in the rising Southeast Asian Kingdoms.

The Shape of Southeast Asian Kingdoms

The Southeast Asian Kingdoms were no ordinary kingdoms, at least not in the European sense. Some historians refer to the Southeast Asian political states as mandalas to ascribe a more accurate title.

The definition of the term Mandala reveals two key aspects:

• A profound influence of spiritual Hinduism and Buddhism in not only culture but political makeup and the shape of Southeast Asian Kingdoms themselves
• In Mandalas, borders were not mainly defined, and people did not necessarily represent themselves by the flag of the ruling power.

Fig. 2- Borobudur in the Indonesian island of Java, the largest Buddhist temple in the world.

As Southeast Asian agriculture and trade flourished into the 5th century, scarce and weak mandalas grew larger, consolidating their power. Eventually, mandalas in Indonesia, Thailand, and Vietnam became powerful enough that they began to resemble empires. Still, large cities such as Angkor belonged to a distinct ruling power, but farmlands were not owned by a ruling elite, as seen in the feudalism of other contemporary kingdoms.

Southeast Asia Kingdoms And Empires

Several Southeast Asian Kingdoms rose to prominence (and fell) during the Medieval Era. The chart below organizes a handful of essential kingdoms within Southeast Asia into their names, locations, periods, and some general facts:

Mandalas such as Ayutthaya and Pagan belonged within wider ethnic regions that roughly coincided with Thailand and Myanmar. Some mandalas existed well before their supposed beginning date; historians recognize that the first written reference of Buatan was in a Song Dynasty correspondence in 1001 CE, but also acknowledge that the kingdom existed long before then.

Fig 3- Painting elephant cavalry battling in the 16th century Burmese-Siamese War.

Early Southeast Asian Kingdoms

The earliest and longest lasting of the Southeast Asian Kingdoms was Champa, of the Cham people. Adorned in jewels and precious metals, Cham kings were known as raja-di-raja, a Hindu title meaning "king of kings." The grandiose title indicates a trend of absolute, divinely-ordained rule in the Southeast Asian Kingdoms, typically built upon Hindu beliefs.

Champa formed an alliance with the rising Dai Viet in the 13th century to repel the invading Yuan Dynasty, and the alliance found success. The two kingdoms often quarreled, however, leading to the Cham-Vietnamese Wars. In 1471, Date Viet ravaged Champa, effectively ending the Cham kingdom, though small mandalas persisted until the 19th century.

Three Characteristics Of Southeast Asian Kingdoms

As the Southeast Asian Kingdoms grew throughout the Medieval Period, they acquired similar characteristics:

• Southeast Asian Kingdoms engaged actively in trade with India and China, leading to a fair amount of Indianization and Sinicization, where Hindu and Buddhist beliefs informed political structure, social outlook, architecture, and art.
• Southeast Asian Kingdoms engaged in rivalry-driven warfare as mandalas sought to expand their imperialistic reach, typically at a higher cost than gain.
• Southeast Asian Kingdoms were organized as mandalas, tiny spheres of influence, usually ruled by a powerful figurehead believed to possess a divine right to rule.

Historical Southeast Asian Kingdoms

It was not uncommon for Southeast Asian Kingdoms to rise and fall after only a handful of centuries, their significance obscured by modern history. But where political structures dissolved and cultures endured, Southeast Asia remains a fascinating world of converged ethnic groups, world religions, and beliefs.

Fig. 4- Ayutthaya ruins in modern-day Thailand.

Siam, Champa, Dai Viet, Pagan, Buatan, Srivijaya, and Khmer are only a handful of mandalas that ruled in Southeast Asia; these overlooked kingdoms played essential roles in the Medieval Era, their cities rivaling Baghdad and Constantinople, their art and architecture rivaling China and Europe.