When historians joke about two places that you probably shouldn't invade, two countries come to mind: Russia and Imperial Vietnam. More recently, the United States of America and France learned the cost of partaking in wars on Vietnamese soil, but long before them lies a history of damaging rebellions and resistance to foreign invasion. Imperial Vietnam's greatest rival throughout history was China to the north, through which no less than three terrifying Mongol invasions of the Yuan Dynasty attacked. Spoiler alert: Imperial Vietnam beat the Mongols every single time. But how did Imperial Vietnam stake out its own distinct legacy among many attempts at invasion, and is there more to its history than just war?
Vietnam Dynasties
Imperial Vietnam had many, many dynasties in its nearly 5,000 years of dynastic rule. Ranging from dynasties that lasted no more than a handful of years to many centuries, the longevity and impact of the myriad Imperial Vietnam Dynasties are inconsistent at best. Typically, Vietnam Dynasties were named after the names of the ruling family, who also lent their names to the state.
Vietnam Dynasties Map
No single map could properly reflect the ever-changing boundaries of Imperial Vietnam. For most of its history, Vietnam was divided into two distinct states: Dai Viet (968 to 1804 CE) in the north and Champa (192 to 1832 CE) in the south along much of the coastline. Like the other Southeast Asian Kingdoms, Imperial Vietnam was exposed to Indian influence by way of maritime trade and Sinicization by way of Northern Chinese invasion. To its west is modern-day Cambodia, once home of the Khmer Empire, a long rival of the Cham people.
Sinicization: the practice of imprint Chinese influence and culture to a non-Chinese people. The prefix "Sino" means Chinese.
Located on the eastern coast of Southeast Asia, Vietnam's humid temperatures and precipitous conditions sustain thick jungles. This climate provides natural defense against invasion, and productive rice fields (especially around the Red River Delta in Northern Vietnam) for the growth of powerful civilizations.
Fig. 1: Map of 19th century Vietnam.
Vietnam Dynasties Timeline
Imperial Vietnam's long history is often segmented by the years of Chinese rule in the region. On four separate occasions, powerful Chinese Dynasties conquered and ruled over Northern Vietnam; these are known as the Chinese Dominations of Vietnam. Otherwise, Vietnamese history is typically divided by its ruling dynasties. Of the two major Vietnamese states (Dai Viet and Champa), many dynasties ruled within, either concurrently or replacing each other with time. The timeline below details this breakdown of Imperial Vietnamese history:
- 111 BC to 40 CE: First Chinese Domination of Vietnam.
- 43 CE to 544 CE: Second Chinese Domination of Vietnam.
- 192 CE: Kingdom of Champa is established.
- 602 to 938 CE: Third Chinese Domination of Vietnam.
- 968 to 1407: Dai Viet rules over Northern Vietnam.
- 1407 to 1427 CE: Fourth Chinese Domination of Vietnam.
- 1428 to 1802 CE: Dai Viet revival (mainly under the long-ruling Lê dynasty)
- 1802 to 1945: The Nguyen Dynasty rules over Vietnam.
- 1832: Kingdom of Champa comes to an end.
Imperial Vietnam Creation
The history of Imperial Vietnam begins with the Hong Bang Dynasty (2879 BC to 258 BC). An ancient state shrouded in myth, the Hong Bang Dynasty was deposed by Thục Phán, who established the Au Lac Kingdom. More important than the names of individual rulers and dynasties are the two distinct Vietnamese cultures that arose during ancient times: northern Dong Soon culture and southern Sa Huynh culture. These cultures would come to define their respective regions, developing their own traditions, art, and architecture as the foundation for Dai Viet and Champa.
Fig. 2: 4000-year-old vase of the Southern Vietnamese Sa Huynh Culture.
All Eyes on Imperial Vietnam
Moving into the Common Era (past the year zero, corresponding with the death of Jesus Christ), the Kingdom of Nanyue deposed Au Lac in Northern Vietnam while the Kingdom of Funan arose in the south. At the same time, the Han Dynasty launched its invasion of Vietnam, beginning the First Chinese Domination of Vietnam.
The Hang Dynasty introduced Sinicization policies, largely failing to integrate the indigenous Vietnamese people into China. Funan told a different story. Alongside the wealth of imported goods, Buddhism and Hinduism flowed into Imperial Vietnam. These religions would have major influence on Imperial Vietnamese culture and society.
Third Chinese Domination of Vietnam
From 602 to 938, the Sui Dynasty and then the Tang Dynasty of China ruled over Vietnam. Tens of thousands of Chinese troops secured the region, imposing the social norms and beliefs of Imperial China into northern Vietnam. The Tang promoted Daoism while simultaneously subjugating Vietnamese women, who previously held prominent and enjoyable roles in society. Rebellions brewed, however, until Vietnamese warlord Ngô Quyền freed his homeland of Han rule.
Anarchy of the 12 Warlords
Ngô Quyền's kingdom did not last. A succession crisis began soon after his death, leading to a period of civil war known as the Anarchy of the 12 Warlords. This period of internal strife lasted from 966 to 968 CE. Foremost among the prospective warlords, Đinh Bộ Lĩnh fought to reunify the lands of northern Imperial Vietnam, and he succeeded. Đinh Bộ Lĩnh then founded the Đinh Dynasty (968-980), the first dynasty of Dai Viet.
Anarchy of the 12 Warlords in Depth:
Ngô Quyền achieved victory against the Chinese and established his kingdom in 939, but he died only five years later in 944. His half-brother Dương Tam Kha usurped the throne, deposing Ngô Quyền's son and the rightful prince named Ngô Xương Ngập.
Rebellions ensued, eventually seeing Ngô Xương Ngập reclaim his throne in 951. What seemed like a return to normalcy under legitimate rule was actually a festering of rebellious ideals and political resentment. Tensions erupted in 965 CE as twelve polities divided themselves into three main warring factions.
Fig. 3: Map depicting the warring territories during the "Anarchy of 12 Warlords" period.
Some lords justified their claims to rulership upon their lineage to Chinese dynasties, while others such as the Ngô royalists claimed sovereign Vietnamese rulership. As the anarchy progressed, the warlord Đinh Bộ Lĩnh turned the civil war into a unification war, establishing Dai Viet in the wake of his victorious campaign. Political struggles never left him, however, and in 979 he was assassinated by one of his court officials.
Dai Viet
Dai Viet ruled from northern Vietnam from 968 CE to 1802 CE, a nearly one thousand year long reign interrupted by the Fourth Chinese Domination of Vietnam (1407-1427) under the Ming Dynasty. Dai Viet was ruled by multiple dynasties, including:
The Ly Dynasty began shaping Dai Viet into a true nation, properly beginning the history of Imperial Vietnam. Making remarkable advancements in the region's economy and infrastructure, the Ly Dynasty laid the groundwork for future advancement. Buddhism and Daoism became official religions, while women continued enjoying their relatively equal and often powerful roles in society, a trait shared by many dynasties in Imperial Vietnam (except when ruled by the Chinese).
Champa Kingdoms
In the south, the Cham were busy fighting their fearsome rival the Khmer Empire, repelling attack after attack and eventually taking Angkor, the Khmer capital. Dai Viet was no friend of Champa either, fighting the south for control over provinces between them.
The Cham-Vietnamese War of 1471 debilitated the strength of the Champa Kingdoms; tens of thousands were killed as cities were looted. Champa shrunk into a tiny polity, while Dai Viet absorbed many of its former provinces. The downfall of the Cham at the hands of Dai Viet was preceded by an unlikely alliance, however, when the two joined forces against a common threat in the 13th century.
Mongol Invasion of Vietnam
The Tran Dynasty that succeeded the Ly Dynasty faced a terrible challenge, however. The Yuan Dynasty of China staged three Mongol Invasions into northern Vietnam: one in 1258, 1285, and 1278-1288. Faced with an existential, civilization-ending threat, Dai Viet and the Champa Kingdoms entered into an alliance to repel the Mongol invasions. At the Battle of Bạch Đằng in 1288, Vietnamese forces led the Mongol fleet into a trap, destroying the invading ships along with any further hopes of Mongol conquest over Southeast Asia.
Fig. 4: Diorama in Ho Chi Minh City Museum depicting the Vietnamese victory over the Mongols at Van Kiep in 1285.
The End of Imperial Vietnam
The Nguyen Dynasty (1802-1945) heralded Imperial Vietnam into the modern era; simultaneously, it would be the last dynasty to officially rule over Imperial Vietnam. During its 143-year-long reign, the Nguyen Dynasty saw its initial strength diminish under the imperialism and colonialism of France. Despite its growing weakness, the Nguyen Dynasty lasted into World War II, when it acted primarily as a puppet of the Japanese Empire. The nationalist Vietnamese Independence movement led by the Viet Minh, formulated in 1941, spelled the end of Imperial Vietnam in 1945 by deposing the Nguyen Dynasty from state power.
Imperial Vietnam - Key takeaways
- Imperial Vietnam's history can be mainly divided into two main geographical locations: northern Vietnam (Dai Viet) and southern Vietnam (Champa), based on the Dong Soon and Sa Huynh cultures, respectively.
- China ruled over Vietnam during four different periods of domination. Rebellions and resistance efforts always reinstated local Vietnamese rule, especially as Sinicization efforts largely failed in Imperial Vietnam.
- Dai Viet and Champa entered into an alliance against the invading Yuan Dynasty, but the following Cham-Vietnamese War of 1471 saw a devastating defeat for the Champa, effectively ending their dominance in Southern Vietnam as Dai Viet continued to grow in power.
- The Nguyen Dynasty rose to power in 1802 and ruled as Imperial Vietnam's last dynasty. French colonialism encroached upon Imperial Vietnam during the Nguyen reign, weakening Vietnam until it became a puppet state of the Japanese during World War II.
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