Pax Mongolica

The term “Pax Mongolica” (1250-1350) refers to the time when the Mongol Empire, founded by Genghis Khan, controlled much of the Eurasian continent. At its height, the Mongol Empire spanned from the east coast of Eurasia in China all the way to Eastern Europe. Its size made that state the largest contiguous empire on land in recorded history.

The Mongols conquered these lands by force. However, they were more interested in collecting taxes from the conquered population rather than converting them to their ways. As a result, the Mongol rulers allowed for relative religious and cultural freedom. For a time, Pax Mongolica provided stability and relative peace for trade and intercultural communication.

Fig. 1 - Portrait of Genghis Khan, 14th century.

Pax Mongolica: Definition

"Pax Mongolica" literally means "Mongolian peace" and refers to the Mongol rule over much of Eurasia. This term comes from "Pax Romana," the heyday of the Roman Empire.

The Beginning and End of Pax Mongolica: Summary

The Mongols were a nomadic people. Therefore, they were not very experienced in governing such a vast expanse of land which they conquered in the first half of the 13th century. There were also disputes over succession. As a result, the Empire was already split into four parts by the time the grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan, died in 1294. These parts were:

1. Golden Horde;
2. Yuan Dynasty;
3. Chagatai Khanate;
4. Ilkhanate.

In 1368, the Chinese Ming Dynasty pushed the Mongols out of China, and in 1480, Russia defeated the Golden Horde after more than two centuries of vassalage. Parts of the Chagatai Khanate, however, lasted into the 17th century.

Description of the Pax Mongolica

For approximately a century, Pax Mongolica provided reasonably peaceful conditions for trade and facilitated communication across the Eurasian landmass.

Pax Mongolica: Background

The Mongol Empire arose from Central Asia and spread throughout Eurasia. The Mongols were nomadic people.

However, their nomadic lifestyle also meant that the Mongols were less experienced in statecraft and governing large territories they later conquered. As a result, the Empire began to fragment less than a century after its inception.

Fig. 2 - Mongol warriors, 14th century, from Rashid-ad-Din's Gami' at-tawarih.

Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire reached the Pacific coast in the east of Eurasia and Europe in the west. In the 13th and 14th centuries, the Mongols controlled this vast landmass. After the Empire fragmented, however, the different khanates still ruled over a significant part of the continent for a time.

The military and political leader Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227) was key to establishing the Mongol Empire in 1206. At its height, the Empire spanned 23 million square kilometers or 9 million square miles, making it the largest connected land empire in history. Genghis Khan won a number of regional armed conflicts which secured his position as an undisputed leader.

One of the main reasons for the initial successes of the Mongol Empire was Genghis Khan's military innovation.

The great khan also introduced a new code with political and social rules called Yassa. Yassa prohibited Mongols from fighting each other. Genghis Khan also advocated a certain degree of religious freedom and encouraged literacy and international trade.

Effects of the Pax Mongolica

There were several noteworthy effects of Pax Mongolica, such as:

• Taxation
• Relative religious tolerance
• Growth of trade
• Relative peace
• Inter-cultural communication

Taxes

The Mongols controlled their vast Empire by collecting tribute.

In some cases, the Mongols designated the local leadership as tax collectors. This was the case with the Russians collecting tribute for the Mongols. As a result, the Mongols did not have to visit the lands they controlled. This policy, in part, contributed to the rise of Muscovite Rus and the eventual overthrow of Mongol rule.

Religion

In the Middle Ages, religion was one of the most important aspects of life permeating all parts of society. The Mongols' attitudes toward the religions of their conquered subjects varied. On the one hand, they initially prohibited some of the food-related practices of the Muslims and the Jews. Later, much of the Mongol Empire itself converted to Islam.

The Golden Horde was generally tolerant of Orthodox Christianity in the northwest part of the Empire. At one point, the khans even allowed the Russian Orthodox Church not to pay taxes.

Pax Mongolica: Time Period

Pax Mongolica was at its height from the mid-13th to the mid-14th century. It comprised four main parts that eventually became separate political entities:

*Yarkent Khanate, the last part of Chagatai Khanate, lasted until 1705.

Some Important Rulers

• Genghis Khan (c. 1162–1227)
• Ögedei Khan (c. 1186–1241)
• Güyük Khan (1206–1248)
• Batu Khan (c. 1205–1255)
• Möngke Khan (1209-1259)
• Kublai Khan (1215-1294)
• Uzbeg Khan (1312–41)
• Toghon Temür (1320 – 1370)
• Mamai (c. 1325-1380/1381)

Early Conquests

Yuan Dynasty in China

The grandson of Genghis Khan, Kublai Khan (1215-1294), founded the Yuan Dynasty in China after conquering in 1279. The Mongol control of China meant that their enormous Empire spanned from the Pacific coast in the east of the Eurasian continent all the way to Persia (Iran) and ancient Rus in the west.

As was the case with other parts of the Mongol Empire, Kublai Khan was able to unite a divided region. However, the Mongols controlled China for less than a century due to lacking statecraft skills.

Fig. 3 - The Court of Kublai Khan, Frontispiece of De l'estat et du gouvernement du grant Kaan de Cathay, empereur des Tartares, Mazarine Master, 1410-1412,

The Venetian merchant Marco Polo (1254-1324) popularized Yuan China and the Mongol Empire by documenting his adventures there. Marco Polo spent approximately 17 years at Kublai Khan's court and even served as his envoy throughout Southeast Asia.

Golden Horde

Golden Horde was the northwestern part of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century. Eventually, after 1259, the Golden Horde became an independent entity. The Mongols, led by Batu Khan (c. 1205 – 1255), initially invaded a number of key cities of ancient Rus, including Ryazan in 1237, and conquered the capital Kiev in 1240.

At that time, ancient Rus was already split for internal political reasons. It was also weakened because the Byzantine Empire, its political and Orthodox Christian ally, went into relative decline.

Fig. 4 - Great Stand on the Ugra River in 1480. Source: 16th-century Russian chronicle.

The Mongols dominated this region until the late 15th century. At this time, the center of medieval Rus moved to the Grand Duchy of Moscow. A key turning point came with the Kulikovo Battle in 1380. Prince Dmitri led the Russian troops to a decisive victory over the Mongol army controlled by Mamai. This victory did not give Muscovite Rus independence, but it weakened the Golden Horde. Exactly a hundred years later, an event called the Great Stand on the Ugra River, however, led to Russian independence under Tsar Ivan III following more than 200 years of Mongol vassalage.

The Decline of the Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire declined for a number of reasons. First, the Mongols were less experienced in statecraft, and governing a vast Empire was difficult. Second, there were conflicts regarding succession. In the late 13th century, the Empire already split into four parts. As time went on, many of the conquered people were able to push the Mongols out, as was the case with China in the 14th and Russia in the 15th centuries. Even in Central Asia, where the Mongols exerted greater control due to geographic proximity, new political formations arose. This was the case with the Timurid Empire founded by another great military leader, Tamerlane (Timur) (1336–1405).