Toussaint Louverture

Toussaint Louverture was the most important leader of the Haitian Revolution. He is sometimes called the black George Washington and the black Napoleon. He was both a brilliant military general and a shrewd politician. However, he died in a French prison cell eight months before Haiti's independence was formally established.

Who was Toussaint Louverture? How did this former slave come to lead the forces of the Haitian Revolution? How did his combination of military success and diplomatic skill help steer the colony to independence? And why did he die alone in a prison cell? Learn about the Haitian Revolution's greatest leader and his accomplishments and impacts in this article.

Toussaint Louverture: A Biography

Toussaint Louverture's biography is an interesting one that traces his rise from a slave to the leader of an autonomous colony, achieving practical Haitian independence. However, the biography of Toussaint Louverture ultimately ends in betrayal when his former French allies turned on him.

François Dominique Toussaint Louverture

Toussaint Louverture was born as a slave with the name François Dominque Toussaint Breda. Records of his birthdate are unclear but historians agree it was either in May 1743 or 1746. His last name was that of the plantation he was born on, a common practice for slaves in Haiti and the Atlantic World at the time.

Haiti was at this time a French colony known by the name Saint-Domingue. Sugar and coffee plantations had made the island colony enormously valuable to the French, in fact, the most valuable colony in the Atlantic World. The plantation system also caused the mass importation of African slaves. Work and slavery on the plantations were especially brutal for the enslaved people.

François Dominque Toussaint was fortunate that his godfather taught him to read and write and his owner allowed him access to his library. The young slave could speak three languages: Creole, French, and Latin. His father also educated him in traditional African healing practices.

By 1776, records show François Dominque Toussaint had earned his freedom and continued working as a free laborer on the Breda plantation. Soon, he would become the leader of the most successful slave rebellion in history, leading the Haitian Revolution and helping establish the second independent state in the Atlantic World.

Fig 1 - Portrait of Louverture

Toussaint Louverture in the Haitian Revolution

Toussaint Louverture eventually became the most important figure in the Haitian Revolution, coming to rule the colony of Saint-Domingue and pushing it towards independence.

Haitian Revolution Begins

In August 1791, slaves in Saint-Domingue rose up against their masters in revolution. They were influenced by the events of the French Revolution in France and hoped to secure the same rights for themselves that the French Revolution's leaders promoted.

This rebellion set in motion the Haitian Revolution.

Toussaint was at first hesitant to join the rebellion. However, he eventually joined the uprising. He first served as a doctor, putting what he had learned from his father to use. He quickly distinguished himself as a crafty military leader and tactician.

By 1793, he had become one of the most important leaders in the rebel army. His skills as a diplomat and politician would be crucial to moving the colony towards independence.

Toussaint Plays Imperial Powers Against Each Other

Revolutionary France found itself in war against both Spain and Britain in Europe. This conflict spilled over into the Atlantic World. Each of these rivals attempted to influence events in Saint-Domingue for their own benefit and to weaken France.

Toussaint cleverly took advantage of this context of imperial rivalry. He first allied himself with the Spanish, even being named an officer in the Spanish military. He led Spanish forces against French colonial authorities, happy to sacrifice his French citizenship if it meant securing the ending of slavery.

Unable to fend off the Spanish, British, and the revolutionary forces, the French made the decision to abolish slavery. In exchange, Toussaint realigned himself with them, leading the fight against the Spanish and British.

According to legend, it is during this period that a French officer gave him the name "L'Ourverture," the French word for opening. He earned this nickname for having a knack for finding openings in the enemy's lines, a testament to his skills as a general. He would forever be known as Toussaint Louverture.

Fig 2 - Louverture leadning troops.

Governor General

By 1799, Louverture's forces had successfully defeated the Spanish and British forces. He was named Governor of Saint-Domingue and had become a decorated officer in the French Army.

As the leader of the colony, he worked to rebuild the island's economy and consolidate the gains for which he had fought. To do so, he attempted to reinstitute the plantation system, believing it important to the economic development of the island.

He invited former plantation owners to return to the island and forced many former slaves to return to work on them. This caused opposition from many of the former slaves, and he faced some rebellions.

However, his true goal was always independence or at least autonomy for the colony. He oversaw the creation of a new constitution for the colony, which was signed in July 1801. Enshrined in it was the statement that all of the colony's people were "free and French."

Napoleon Turns on Louverture

Napoleon Bonaparte had become dominant in France by 1799. Facing wars on several fronts, the new self-proclaimed emperor sought to rebuild France's colonial power in the Atlantic World. He eventually decided that he should replace Toussaint Louverture as leader of Saint-Domingue.

Napoleon considered the new constitution in Saint-Domingue to be an affront and challenge to him. In January of 1802, he sent 40,000 French troops to reestablish white control over Saint-Domingue. There were rumors he would reinstitute slavery. Toussaint Louverture refused to recognize the authority of the French forces and fighting broke out again in Saint-Domingue.

Toussaint Louverture's Capture and Death

Toussaint Louverture would pay dearly for his refusal to accept Napoleon's authority, ultimately giving his life for the cause of freedom for the enslaved and independence in Saint-Domingue.

Toussaint Louverture as Outlaw

The leader of the French forces, General Charles Victor Emmanuel Leclerc declared Toussaint Louverture to be an outlaw in February 1802. In April of that year, two of his fellow revolutionaries joined with the French on the promise that slavery would never be reestablished, ensuring the freed people would never be enslaved again.

Toussaint Louverture attempted to make peace with Leclerc, retiring to his plantation. However, French authorities clearly still saw him as a threat and he was accused of inciting rebellion and plotting to kill the white population by them and French newspapers, often in blatant racial attacks.

Capture and Death

On June 7, 1802, Toussaint Louverture, along with his entire family, even his 105-year-old godfather, were taken into custody and sent to prison in France. This was despite the fact that the French had signed an armistice with him.

Less than a year later, Toussaint Louverture was found dead in his prison cell on April 7, 1803.

Since at least January of that year, his guard had recorded that he was sick and had a near constant cough in his cold cell. French authorities refused Toussaint Louverture's request for more firewood, believing he was faking it, further revealing the racist treatment he received.

The Accomplishments of Toussaint Louverture

It is impossible to deny Toussaint Louverture's accomplishments on the battlefield, freeing the enslaved, and steering the Haitian Revolution towards independence. His legacy survived despite his death and poor treatment by the French,

The General that Defeated Three Empires

Toussaint Louverture had successfully engaged in battle with and defeated forces of the French, British, and Spanish empires. He did so leading a rebel army of former slaves against Europe's finest professional armies. In addition to his skills on the battlefield, he successfully navigated the politics and diplomacy that brought autonomy to the colony.

Assured the End of Slavery

It may be easy in hindsight to say Louverture should have pushed for complete independence earlier, refusing to collaborate with the French against the Spanish and British. However, he made the strategic decision to achieve incremental gains. In allying with the French and keeping Haiti as a French colony, he assured the enslaved majority would be freed.

Established the Foundations of Haitian Independence

Toussaint Lourverture would not live to see an independent Haiti. It formally declared its independence on January 1, 1804 under Touissaint Louverture's leading lieutenant Jacques Dessalines, who led the independence forces after Louverture's capture.

However, Louverture deserves much of the credit for steering Haiti towards independence. The island was in practice essentially independent and led by Louverture from 1799 onward. His refusal to submit to the reimposition of white rule by Napoleon undoubtedly inspired his countrymen to continue to struggle for absolute Haitian independence.

Fig 3 - Portrait of Louverture

Toussaint Louverture Significance

Toussaint Louverture's significance is immense. He was an enslaved person who educated himself and obtained his freedom, turned freedom fighter, turned statesman. He is considered the founding father of Haiti and was the most important leader for much of the Haitian Revolution.

His story was also inspirational to other enslaved peoples around the world. Not only was Toussaint Louverture's biography an inspiration, but the symbolic power of the new black nation-state he helped to forge, only the second independent state in the Atlantic World, inspired others as well.

2. Ibid

3. Ibid