In 1917, the United States was unprepared for its new commitment to the Allied Powers of World War I. The army was small, with only 127,500 men. Beyond that, the nation was not equipped for the realities of a military campaign, such as transporting, supplying, and feeding the troops. It was up to General John Joseph "Black Jack" Pershing to lead the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) to the European continent. How did he manage to generate a world-class army from almost nothing?
Fig.1 General Pershing
Leader of the American Expeditionary Force
Born in Missouri in 1860, Pershing graduated from the US Military Academy at West Point in 1886 and became an officer in the US Army. His experience was vast, including many military actions over decades. In addition to his practical experience, he was very knowledgeable in military theory, teaching at the University of Nebraska and West Point between military campaigns and earning a law degree.
Pershing had the nickname "Black Jack," whose origin is uncertain. Some believe it is due to his relationships with Black people. Before joining the military, he had taught at a school for Black people and, as a Cavalry officer, had commanded an all-Black unit. He was known for praising and respecting the Black soldiers under his command. Alternatively, the name may have come from his strict discipline teaching at West Point.
Pershing's Military Campaigns
Throughout his career, Pershing took part in the following military campaigns:
- Western campaigns against Apache and Sioux tribes
- Spanish-American War
- Moro rebellion in the Philippines
- Pursuit of Pancho Villa in Mexico
Later Life
After the war, Pershing returned home to cheering crowds and Republicans eager to draft him as the 1920 Presidential Candidate. Eventually, he reluctantly accepted support to run in the primary. Still, he did not even attend the Republican convention, where he lost the nomination in a crowded field to Warren G. Harding. Although Pershing had been respected by his troops due to his sharp sense of discipline, he was not loved, which may have hindered his political chances. He succeeded in publishing a book on his war experiences, earning him a Pulitzer Prize. His advice on military matters would be sought for decades after the war.
American Expeditionary Force: Facts
Initially, the American public opposed becoming involved in a foreign war. 128 dead Americans due to Germany's sinking of the British Ocean liner Lusitania changed that. The nation became further inflamed when a telegram was intercepted stating that Germany was seeking an alliance with US neighbor Mexico. The killing of Americans and seeking a partnership to bring the war to the United States' doorstep proved too much. President Woodrow Wilson asked for and received Congress's declaration of war against Germany.
Fig.2 - Freshly Enlisted WWI Soldier
Preparations for War
This was not like any war the United States had fought so far. The US was not seeking a permanent foothold like the Philippines but launching an expedition to defend Europe and return home. The existing army was far too small to accomplish the task. Millions volunteered but even more were drafted into the conflict. Recruiting, training, and logistics all presented massive hurdles to overcome.
Recruiting
When the war began, the US Army consisted of just over 100,000 men. By the end of WWI, a year and a half later, 4 million had served in the army alongside 800,000 in other branches of the military. Although two million volunteered for the war effort, it was not enough. Just a month after the war was declared, Congress passed the Selective Service Act, which required men to register for the draft. Although many were not eager to volunteer, most participated in the draft.
President Wilson and Justice Department empowered a private organization known as The American Protective League to conduct "Slacker Raids," where men suspected of evading the draft were rounded up. Eventually, this degenerated into vigilante attacks on people viewed as anti-war or pro-German.
Training
Preparing the soldiers for combat was a unique challenge. The vast majority of soldiers were recruited with no combat experience. Those few who were well-trained and experienced found themselves in an entirely new kind of war. Trench fighting and heavy reliance on artillery were nothing like the open-field war that Pershing was preparing for. British and French officers set up training camps to teach trench warfare techniques to the newly arrived US forces when the first wave landed in Europe. The Europeans also traveled to the United States to aid with training soldiers stateside, so they could enter the continent ready to fight.
Although the AEF would ultimately be successful, training for open-field combat was just one of the early mistakes Pershing would make with incorrect planning.
Logistics
Bullets and food are requirements as much as soldiers to fight the war. Pershing made the mistake of prioritizing only combat units when the US entered the conflict. Without solid logistic support, the ability of American units to fight was significantly reduced. The Secretary of War suggested taking the army's rear away from Pershing for better logistics operation management. Pershing responded by converting some combat units into logistics units and reorganizing the AEF. to rotate units and provide a better balance of unit functions.
Fig.3 - A WWI DoughboyAmerican Expeditionary Force: Doughboys
The term "Doughboy" is a nickname for a WWI soldier. The term specifically applied to an infantry soldier. Whatever the original meaning of the term was is now lost to time, although several explanations, such as the kind of rations given or soldiers being covered in dust, have been offered. Despite the term being remembered chiefly in connection with WWI infantry soldiers, examples of its usage go back to the 1846-1848 Mexican-American War.
Fig.4 - American Troops in France
American Expeditionary Force: WWI
Upon landing on the European continent, General Pershing and European leaders disagreed about the United States' role in the conflict. The Europeans wanted to break up the US troops under their command, while Pershing sought to maintain control of a united US force. Despite many challenges, the US troops grew from a support role into one of the strongest armies in the world during the conflict.
Arrival and First Engagements
The AEF arrived in June 1917, just as Germany's battles with Russia ended, which freed up the German Army. It would take until October for the troops to be actively involved in combat operations. That year and into 1918, US troops mostly supported French and British operations. Their arrival to reinforce the British and French significantly improved the morale of those who had already been fighting for years.
AEF Victories
By May of 1918, the AEF had amassed enough troops, training, and supplies on the continent to fight on its own, winning a victory at Cantigny, France. By July, roles had reversed, and it was French troops supporting the AEF. At the battles of St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne in September and October of 1918, General Pershing commanded 500,000 and then a million US and French troops to victory as they recovered large amounts of French territory from Germany.
End of the War
On November 11, 1918, Germany signed the armistice ending the fighting. A modern army with millions of soldiers had been forged from almost nothing. The cost came to 53,000 American lives. The men returned to celebrations, and military commanders had learned the lessons that would see them through the next World War.
Occupation of Germany
The mission of the AEF continued with the occupation of Germany. The Koblenz region became their responsibility. Pershing made sure to place the Third Army in charge of the occupation, as its troops were primarily made up of volunteers, and sent the drafted men home as soon as possible. Pershing himself left on October 1, 1919, as a new force was sent to occupy Germany until 1923, and the AEF was officially deactivated.
Pershing was not as eager to end the war as others; he argued against accepting the armistice and wanted to fight on until Germany surrendered unconditionally.
Return to the United States
Returning the millions of troops presented yet another logistical challenge. It was feared that years would be required to complete the movement. Fortunately, by the Summer of 1919, most had been returned to the United States. Anxieties about getting back before all the jobs were gone, missing loved ones, and pure boredom all weighed on the men as they awaited their return. Upon returning, they were greeted by parades, celebrations, and a new organization named the American Legion was organized to fight for their interests. Yet, they were left with the trauma of war memories.
American Expeditionary Force - Key takeaways
- The US entered WWI with a small army of over 100,000 men, but it grew to include 4 million soldiers and 800,000 in other branches.
- Led by General John Pershing
- At first faced logistical and training challenges, which were later overcome.
- Took on a support role in early battle before becoming a significant force by the end of the war
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