Monroe Doctrine

Can powerful states declare their neighboring countries a sphere of influence? This key foreign-policy question emerged as part of the Monroe Doctrine—a document that formulated American perception of the Western hemisphere in the 19^th century and beyond. President James Monroe announced this doctrine to the U.S. Congress on December 2, 1823. He advocated for the creation of spheres of influence, in which the United States sphere in the Americas was distinct from those of the Europeans in the Old World and their existent colonies elsewhere. Read on to learn more about the Monroe Doctrine's significance and impact on the course of history.

Fig. 1 - Uncle Sam stands with a rifle between the outrageously dressed European figures and the native-dress-wearing representatives of Nicaragua and Venezuela, Victor Gillam, 1896.

Monroe Doctrine: Purpose

The purpose of the Monroe Doctrine, formulated in 1823 by the United States, was to establish the Western hemisphere inaccessible to European colonialism. The doctrine stated that Americans would not interfere in European affairs, reflecting Monroe's goal of avoiding engagement in European wars. By claiming the entire North and South America as its backyard, the United States followed a similar trajectory to that of the European great powers, thereby establishing a defensive posture in international relations

Monroe Doctrine: Summary

Monroe Doctrine summary can be outlined in the three key points of President James Monroe's speech:

1. North and South Americas are closed to European colonisation
2. Any further attempt to extend European political systems in the Americas will be treated as a threat to the US peace and safety
3. The United States would not interfere in European affairs

First, according to Monroe, North and South America were to be the domain of the United States and could not be colonized by Europeans from this point forward:

Second, should any such attempt at future colonization be made, it would justify a hostile response on the part of the United States:

Finally, Monroe declared the intention to refrain from engaging in European affairs as well as their colonial affairs abroad:

Fig. 2 - James Monroe, fifth President of the United States, 1830-1842.

Monroe Doctrine: Significance and Background

The significance of Monroe's doctrine lies in four important aspects:

• American Enlightenment
• International relations
• Manifest Destiny
• Trade

Their combination provided a strong intellectual, commercial, and geopolitical foundation for articulating the Monroe Doctrine.

First, 18-century American intellectuals, including some of the Founding Fathers, analyzed the European political experience as part of the American Enlightenment. In turn, the American Enlightenment was part of the American Revolution (1776). As a result, they rejected the European models, such as the institution of aristocracy, criticized political corruption, and advocated for republicanism and individualism. One particular aspect of European affairs that American thinkers disparaged was the military conflicts between the European empires both in the Old World and in their colonies. Thus, the Monroe Doctrine had the intention to have an amicable relationship with the European powers while refraining from interfering in their affairs.

Early 19^th-century International Relations

The immediate catalyst for the Monroe Doctrine was the multiple developments in international affairs at this time. Specifically, the United States was concerned about the activity of other countries in the Americas.

• In 1821, Tsar Alexander I released an edict that the United States perceived negatively. The tsar declared the area north of the 51st parallel as Russian. This edict also sought to regulate foreign trade and ship movements in the region. Russia additionally displayed an interest in other parts of the North American west coast. It even had a small settlement called Fort Ross in California in 1812-1841. Americans saw Russian activities in the Pacific Northwest as a challenge to their own expansion and trade, and Tsar Alexander’s edict was one of the catalysts for the Monroe Doctrine.

However, Russia was not the only power that the United States perceived with concern. The Americans were also worried that Spain may attempt to reclaim its former colonies in Central and South America.

Manifest Destiny

The term "Manifest Destiny" was coined two decades following the Monroe Doctrine. The writer John O’Sullivan was an advocate of American expansion on the continent in 1845. However, this concept is relevant for two reasons. First, American expansion westward occurred prior to articulating the term.

Second, like President James Monroe, O’Sullivan disparaged the involvement of European powers in the internal affairs of the Western hemisphere. The concept of Manifest Destiny also had religious undercurrents and the belief in one’s superiority and the mission of continental expansion granted by God. Specifically, Manifest Destiny served as an intellectual source to dispossess the Indigenous people of North America of their land.

Fig. 3 - American Progress, John Gast, 1872 is an allegory depicting the modernization of the American west.

Monroe Doctrine: Trade

One of the central applications of the Monroe Doctrine was trade. Declaring Central and South America as the United States sphere of influence eventually translated into business monopolies by such corporate giants as the United Fruit Company (1899). Over time, the United Fruit Company and others like it came to dominate the Caribbean and Central America and control trade routes. The colloquial term “banana republic” used to describe the historic single-product economy in places like Guatemala or Costa Rica comes from the monopolistic behavior of the United Fruit Company as well as its competitors such as the Standard Fruit Company (present-day Dole Food Company). Therefore, the Monroe Doctrine served as a pretext to expand into Latin America and dominate parts of the region economically.

Monroe Doctrine: Impact

The Monroe Doctrine had a significant impact on the foreign policy of the United States and, in consequence, the rest of the world. Some of the key impacts of the doctrine include:

• The United States became as a major player in international affairs and asserted its dominance in the Western Hemisphere.
• It prevented European colonization and intervention in the Americas, which helped newly independent nations establish their political systems
• The Monroe Doctrine became a cornerstone of American foreign policy and was used by successive American presidents to justify interventions in Latin America and the Caribbean.
• The impact of the Monroe Doctrine can still be felt today, as it remains an influential moment in US history and continues to shape its international relations in the region.

The Aftermath

The Monroe Doctrine led to other related developments in American foreign policy.

The Roosevelt’s Corollary

By the 20^th century, President Theodore Roosevelt amended the Monroe Doctrine with what is referred to as Roosevelt’s Corollary. On December 6, 1904, the President delivered his own message to Congress just like his predecessor James Monroe decades earlier. Influenced by the European involvement in Venezuela, Roosevelt suggested that the United States has the right to intervene in Latin American countries up to and including military action. The initial spirit of the Monroe Doctrine was to protect the young United States. In contrast, the Roosevelt Corollary justified war as a way to maintain order in the region.

Fig. 4 - "Hands Off! This in reality entails no new obligations upon us, for the Monroe Doctrine means precisely such a guarantee on our part." Political cartoon shows Theodore Roosevelt using the Monroe Doctrine to keep European powers out of the Dominican Republic, Louis Dalrymple, 1904.

By this time, the Americans were quite involved in European affairs as well. For instance, Theodore Roosevelt brokered the Treaty of Portsmouth (1905) to conclude the Russo-Japanese War. Americans also participated in the First World War (1914-1918), which they entered in 1917. By the conclusion of the Second World War (1945), the United States emerged as a global superpower.

The Cold War

Whereas it is not invoked explicitly, the Monroe Doctrine was relevant during the Cold War and continues to be so today. The United States continues to exert the greatest influence in the Americas. During the Cuban missile crisis (1962), the United States placed missiles targeting the Soviet Union in places like Turkey. The Soviet Union responded by placing similar missiles in Cuba, which the United States considered its backyard. All the more serious in the nuclear age, the crisis de-escalated four days later. Therefore, the United States transformed from having a somewhat defensive foreign policy to maintaining hundreds of military bases around the world and leading a powerful military alliance NATO.

Monroe Doctrine: Dates

The Monroe Doctrine has been present throughout much of the United States' history. Here are some important dates: