Red Cloud's War

While the American Civil War was finally coming to a close in the east, new tensions were brewing in Montana and Wyoming in the west. The Native American Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes were defying westward expansion, attacking expeditions that were traveling through their territory. Led by the infamous Lakota Chief Red Cloud, the Native Americans emerged victorious against US military reinforcements. But how did Red Cloud's War end in a Native American victory when so many other conflicts in the American Indian Wars ended in defeat?

Red Cloud's War Timeline

Red Cloud's War was a period of intense military engagements among a long history of conflicts in the American Indian Wars during the 19th century. While Red Cloud's War mainly took place from 1866 to 1868, Red Cloud's story and the history of US westward expansionism extend far beyond those three years.

The outline below highlights important events leading up to and included in Red Cloud's War:

• 1863: The Bozeman Trail is established in the territories of the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes.

• 1865: A US military expeditionary force led by Major General Dodge is unsuccessful in routing the defensive tribes.

• 1866: Attempted US negotiations with the Native tribes led by Red Cloud end in failure.

• June 1866: A US expeditionary force led by Colonel Harrington presses into Native territory.

• December 1866: The Native Americans defeat US forces in the Fetterman Massacre.

• August 1867: The Native Americans are defeated at the Hayfield Fight and Wagon Box Fight.

• November 1868: Red Cloud signs the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie, ending the war and recognizing the Native American control of the contested territories.

Red Cloud's War Summary

Red Cloud's War was a conflict between the U.S. government and the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Northern Arapaho tribes. The war was named after Red Cloud, an Oglala Lakota chief who led the Native American forces.

The Native Americans in Red Cloud's War mostly engaged through guerilla tactics, but there were some instances in which a large number of Indians organized a large coordinated offensive. The Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho tribes, as well as the subgroups within the tribes, often conflicted in war strategy or in general politics.

Red Cloud was a respected leader and warrior, becoming the face of Native resistance in the Powder River Country (in Northern Wyoming). The map below displays the territories and battles of Red Cloud's War, as well as the cause of the war itself: the Bozeman Trail which was meant to be a shortcut for the U.S. Government to the Montana goldfields.

Fig. 1 - Red Cloud's War was a conflict from 1866 to 1868 in the modern-day states of Wyoming and Montana.

Red Cloud's War Facts

Historians estimate that Red Cloud commanded up to 2,000 American Indians during his war against the roughly 1,000 men under Colonel Carrington's command. Although Red Cloud's forces outnumbered the US military and possessed knowledge of the territory, the Native tribes were often divided on how to organize their offensive.

Additionally, the Native Americans did not have a dedicated military; men still needed to hunt and provide for their families that lived in the Powder River Country. The US also faced disadvantages; a general lack of supplies and a majority of their army being new recruits.

Red Cloud's War Causes

Miners from the United States struck gold in Montana, and the word spread to the east. Desiring to establish a quick route from Fort Laramie on the Oregon Trail to the new gold mines in Montana, John Bozeman scouted the territory of Powder River Country and established the Bozeman Trail. Although the trail was efficient and surrounded by plentiful resources, it ran directly through territories under the control of the Lakota, Cheyenne, and Arapaho Native American tribes.

The Native tribes attacked US emigrants and caravans traveling on the Bozeman Trail, preserving their claim to the Powder River Country and its resources. The US responded in 1865, dispatching Major General Dodge and over two thousand soldiers to secure the territory. The expedition failed; Native Americans saw victory on the battlefield and continued their raids of the trail.

In 1866, US representatives invited Native American leaders to Fort Laramie to discuss a treaty. Among them, the experienced Lakota Chief Red Cloud was unconvinced. Witnessing the arrival of US Colonel Carrington and thousands of military reinforcements, Red Cloud refused to sign the treaty. Everyone present in Fort Laramie knew that this meant war.

Red Cloud's War Battles

Carrington's expeditionary force established three fortified positions along the Bozeman Trail. Native American parties attacked wagon trails passing between forts, often stealing more cattle and resources than killing. On occasion, the Natives attacked the US forts but were not successful in routing the defending garrisons.

The Fetterman Massacre

In December 1866, the US military experienced its greatest military defeat of the American Indian Wars until the Battle of Little Bighorn.

Under the command of Officer Fetterman, a relief force of 80 US military men charged into a trap set by the Native Americans. Defying orders to not cross the Lodge Trail Ridge, Fetterman pursued the small group of taunting Indians into the Peno Valley. Thousands of hidden Native Americans encircled and killed the 81 men in what is now known as the "Fetterman Massacre". Colonel Carrington was relieved of duty.

The Hayfield Fight and Wagon Box Fight

Taking place just a day apart, the Hayfield Fight and Wagon Box Fight of 1867 fared differently for the Native Americans. Hundreds of Indians engaged in attacks on US military men and civilians in each fight and were defeated in both instances.

The newly introduced Springfield Model 1866 was more effective than the previous US weapons and far superior to the Native American bows (the Native Americans also had guns, but far less than they had bows). The Natives incurred heavy casualties in these battles, but raids on wagon trains and pipelines still succeeded after these losses.

Red Cloud's War Outcome

Desperate to find a peaceful solution to the conflict, the US opened negotiations at Fort Laramie once more in 1868. Red Cloud demanded that the US abandon the newly established forts along the Bozeman Trail, or else he would not engage in further negotiations. The US acceded to Red Cloud's demands, pulling troops from the forts.

Fig. 4 - Close-up photograph of Red Cloud.

Respecting this act of good faith, Red Cloud arrived in Fort Laramie in November 1868. Red Cloud was offered a peace treaty with favorable provisions: the Native Americans would formally acquire the Powder River Country as Indian territory, and US citizens would no longer be allowed to travel through or settle in the territory without the permission of the Natives. Accepting these terms, Red Cloud signed the Treaty of Fort Laramie in 1868, ending his war.

The consequences of Red Cloud's War were significant. The conflict marked one of the few instances where Native American forces secured a major victory against U.S. expansionist efforts, and the U.S. Government recognized Native American control over parts of South Dakota, Wyoming, and Montana in the Treaty of Fort Laramie.

Red Cloud's War Importance