At the Battle of Yorktown, October 19, 1781, the last shots of the American Revolutionary War took place between the Americans and the British. The surrender of Lord Cornwallis' troops to George Washington signaled the end of the British military campaign in the Americas. However, though the fighting was waning, the war was not over as peace negotiations began. What does independence from Britain consist of? What are the accepted boundaries of this new nation? Do America's allies have any say in talks? These questions and more had to be negotiated between Americans, British, French, and Dutch delegates to formally end the hostilities between the new United States of America and the British Empire.
Negotiating the Treaty of Paris (1783)
While Lord North attempted to negotiate the Conciliation Plan with the Americans, the United States had already sent delegates to France to begin negotiations on a more robust peace treaty. The Battle of Saratoga in 1777 had convinced the French to ally themselves with the Americans against their international rival, Britain. France held a large portion of territory in North America. It saw an opportunity to not only prompt a military and economic defeat to England but also gain concessions in the peace process.
The Conciliation Plan (1781-1782)
Fig. 1 - A Portrait of Lord North
Since the outbreak of war, the Prime Minister of England, Lord North, wholeheartedly believed that a British victory was inevitable. He rejected the early Declaration of Rights and Grievances sent by the First Continental Congress in 1774, believing that a strong show of military force would quell any thoughts of rebellion. That view did not hold, and when Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army in 1781, Lord North attempted to reconcile based on the terms of the Declaration. Lord North began negotiations with the Americans over a Conciliation Plan, revoking the Intolerable Acts but reinstating the colonies under British rule.
The Americans wholly rejected the plan. The cause and need for independence had become apparent to them after nearly seven years of war and more than a decade of oppressive taxation and policies. The rejection of the plan ended Lord North's tenure as Prime Minister, as he resigned on March 20, 1782, after a vote of no confidence from Parliament.
Early Negotiations and Provisions of the Treaty of Paris (1783)
The central delegation of American negotiators consisted of Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams. France's original proposal was to divide eastern North America's lands between the three major belligerent nations: France, England, and America. Their proposal granted:
- The United States all lands east of the Appalachian Mountains;
- Britain all lands north of the Ohio River;
- France all lands west of the Mississippi River not controlled by Spain;
- For the indigenous peoples, a buffer zone between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River;
- Spain would retain the control of its southern colonies, such as Florida.
The American delegation refuted the original Treaty, limiting the nation's ability to expand west. One of the initial grievances of the colonies was the repercussions of the Proclamation of 1763, which forbade colonists from settling west of the Appalachian Mountains after the French and Indian war.
Fig. 2 - 1782 territory proposal
Direct Negotiations with Britain
As the delegation didn't work with the French, Lord North resigned his position. The new Prime minister would be Charles Watson-Wentworth. He held a different view than that of Lord North and was open to the complete independence of the American colonies. The American delegation in France sent John Jay to inform the Prime Minister that the Americans were willing to negotiate directly with England. Lord Watson-Wentworth died before negotiations could begin, but his replacement, Lord Shelburne, kept the same sentiment.
Fig. 3 - Lord Shelburne
Lord Shelburne's purpose for direct negotiations and complete independence was economic. He saw the strong United States as a keen financial partner and that harsh or unfair terms in a peace treaty would push the Americans away from trade with England. During the renewed negotiations with England, Britain proposed that the Americans gain sovereignty over all lands east of the Mississippi River. The southern border would be Spanish-controlled Florida, and the northern border would be the current one with Canada. Though the French found themselves frustrated that the Americans began negotiating with the English, they too began peace talks with the British over trade rights.
Provisions of the Treaty of Paris 1783
Besides establishing the sovereign borders of the United States, the Treaty of Paris 1783 set trade and policy provisions. The central provision was a trade-off. The United States would be granted fishing and trade rights off the coast of British-controlled Canada in exchange for recovering stolen and confiscated property of Loyalist Americans. Lord Shelburne aimed to give the Americans favorable terms to calm the tensions between the two nations.
Fig. 4 - Signing of Treaty of Versailles in 1783
Terms of the Treaty of Paris 1783
The Treaty of Paris did expressly state ten agreements between Britain and the United States:
Fig. 5 - Treaty of Paris 1783
- Britain recognized the American colonies as fully sovereign and independent states, with no connection or responsibility to the English Crown.
- Established the northern, southern, and western borders of the United States.
- Granted the United States fishing rights off the coast of Canada.
- Fully recognized the financial debts and credits contracted between the United States and Britain, meaning both nations would uphold current trade agreements.
- The United States would move to reinstate any lost property and restitution to Loyalists quickly.
- The United States would not allow any further confiscation of Loyalist property.
- Both nations agreed to release their prisoners of war, and all British property already within the borders of the United States would remain in the United States.
- Both nations would be granted peaceful access to the Mississippi River.
- Territories captured during the war that was not in the nations' expressed control as defined by the Treaty would be returned to the proper country without compensation.
- The Treaty would be ratified six months after it was signed.
The Significance of the Treaty of Paris 1783
The Treaty was formally signed on September 3, 1783, officially ending the Revolutionary War. The Treaty was very much in favor of the United States, as the new nation gained more territory and trade benefits from the negotiations compared to the French and British.
There were some lasting consequences. For example, the northern border of present-day Minnesota was ambiguously established and would have to be rectified by the Jay Treaty in 1794. In addition, the British did not relinquish control of their Forts in American territory. Another term that would not be corrected and enforced until the Jay Treaty.
Internal conflicts would arise between the federal and state governments under the Articles of Confederation because of the terms over Loyalist property. Some states upheld the Treaty, compensating Loyalists for their estates and property, while other states used confiscated property to pay off debts.
Moreover, the Treaty established the United States as a recognized nation on the international stage. It proved that the National Government could function on behalf of the states when creating peace and trade terms as a union.
Treaty of Paris 1783 - Key takeaways
- Lord Cornwallis surrendered his army in 1781 at the Battle of Yorktown
- Lord North began negotiations with the Americans over a Conciliation Plan, revoking the Intolerable Acts but reinstating the colonies under British rule.
- The Americans wholly rejected the plan, The rejected plan ended Lord North's tenure as Prime Minister, as he resigned on March 20, 1782, after a vote of no confidence from Parliament.
- While Lord North attempted to negotiate the Conciliation Plan with the Americans, the United States had already sent delegates to France to begin negotiations on a more robust peace treaty.
- The central delegation of American negotiators consisted of Benjamin Franklin, John Jay, and John Adams.
- The United States would be granted fishing and trade rights off the coast of British-controlled Canada in exchange for recovering stolen and confiscated property of Loyalist Americans. Lord Shelburne aimed to give the Americans favorable terms to calm the tensions between the two nations.
- The Treaty of Paris stated ten agreements between Britain and the United States.
- The Treaty was formally signed on September 3, 1783, officially ending the Revolutionary War.
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