French and Indian War

Can an empire dominate a foreign continent but lose it all during the course of a war? This loss is essentially what happened to France as a result of the French and Indian War which happened between 1754-1763. The French and Indian War was a military conflict between two colonial empires, Britain and France, that occurred in North America. Each side also had auxiliaries comprised of various Indigenous tribes at different times. What complicated the situation even further is the fact that this colonial conflict had a counterpart in the Old World, the Seven Years’ War (1756-1763).

The immediate cause of the French and Indian War was the control of the upper Ohio River Valley. However, this conflict was also part of the general colonial rivalry between the European powers in the New World for the control of land, resources, and access to trade routes.

Fig. 1 - The Capture of the 'Alcide' and 'Lys’, 1755, depicts the British capture of French ships in Acadia.

French and Indian War: Causes

The primary causes of the French and Indian War were territorial disputes between the French and British colonies in North America. Let's wind backwards to understand the historical contexts behind these territorial disputes.

The European age of exploration and conquest began in the 16^th century. Great powers, such as Portugal, Spain, Britain, France, and the Netherlands, sailed abroad and established colonies all over the world. North America became the source of colonial rivalry largely between Britain and France, but also with Spain in the south of the continent. The rich resources of North America, maritime and land trade routes, and territories for settlements comprised some of the key contentions of the European settlers in North America.

At the height of its imperialist expansion in North America, France ruled a large part of this continent, New France. Its possessions spanned from Hudson’s Bay in the north to the Gulf of Mexico in the south, and from Newfoundland in the northeast to the Canadian prairies in the west. France’s most prominent and the best-established colony was Canada followed by:

• Plaisance (Newfoundland),
• Hudson’s Bay,
• Acadia (Nova Scotia),
• Louisiana.

In turn, Britain controlled the Thirteen Colonies, which later formed the United States, comprising the New England, Middle, and Southern Colonies. In addition, the British Hudson’s Bay Company was a leader in the fur trade in present-day Canada. Both powers were vying for control of the fur trade in these territories. Additionally, long-standing geopolitical rivalries between France and Britain in Europe played a role in the outbreak of the conflict.

Fig. 2 - French and Native American troops attack Fort Oswego, 1756, by John Henry Walker, 1877.

French and Indian War: Summary

The French and the British side were each supported by the Indigenous people. At one point or another, the Algonquin, Ojibwe, and Shawnee tribes operated on the French side, whereas the British received support from the Cherokee and the Iroquois people. The tribes participated in this war for a number of reasons, including geographic proximity, previous relationships, alliances, hostilities with the colonists and other tribes, and one’s own strategic goals, among others.

The French and Indian War can roughly be divided into two periods:

• The first half of the war involved multiple French victories in North America, such as the capture of Fort Oswego (Lake Ontario) in 1756.
• In the second part of the war, however, the British mobilized their financial and supply resources as well as the superior maritime power to fight the French at sea and to cut off their respective supply lines.

One of the tactics the British used was to block French ships transporting food both in Europe and in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The war was economically draining for both European countries, especially France. Some of the decisive British victories in the second half of the war include the Battle of Quebec in 1759.

French and Indian War: Short-Term Catalysts

Apart from the general colonial rivalry, a number of immediate catalysts led to the French and Indian War. Virginians perceived the upper Ohio River valley as their own by deferring to their 1609 charter which predated the French claims to the area. The French, however, ordered the local traders to lower the British flags and, later, to vacate the area in 1749. Three years later, the French and their Indigenous auxiliaries destroyed an important trading center that belonged to Britain at Pickawillany (upper Great Miami River) and captured the traders themselves.

In 1753, the American colonists led by George Washington announced that New France’s Fort LeBouef (present-day Waterford, Pennsylvania) belonged to Virginia. A year later, the French descended on the construction of a fort by the American colonists in the area of today’s Pittsburg (Monongahela and Allegheny Rivers). Therefore, this series of escalating circumstances led to a lengthy military conflict.

Fig. 3 - The Three Cherokees, ca. 1762.

French and Indian War: Participants

The main participants of the French and Indian war were France, Britain, and Spain. Each had their own supporters in this conflict.

French and Indian War: Historiography

Historians examined the French and Indian War from a variety of perspectives, including:

• The imperial rivalry between European states: colonial acquisition of foreign territories and competition for resources;
• The spiral model of war and peace: each state focuses on its security concerns, such as increasing the military, until they come into conflict with each other;
• War strategy, tactics, diplomacy, and intelligence gathering in this conflict;
• Post-colonial framework: the role of the indigenous tribes drawn into this European war.

French and Indian War: Map

The French and Indian War was fought across various locations in North America. The main theatre of conflict was the frontier region from Virginia to Nova Scotia, particularly in the Ohio River Valley and around the Great Lakes. Battles also took place in New York, Pennsylvania, and along the frontier of the New England colonies.

Fig. 4 - The French and Indian War took place in North America, primarily in the territories claimed by the British and French Colonies.

French and Indian War: Dates

Below is a table of the key dates and events that happened during the French and Indian War.

For France, the aftermath of the war was devastating. Not only was it financially damaging, but France essentially lost its status as a colonial power in North America. Through the Treaty of Paris (1763), France ceded the area east of the Mississippi River long with Canada to Britain. Western Louisiana and New Orleans went to Spain for a time. Spain, a late contributor to the war, gave up Florida to Britain in exchange for Havana, Cuba.

Therefore, Britain emerged a victor in the French and Indian war by gaining substantial territory and essentially monopolizing North America for a time. However, the costs of the war forced Britain to mobilize resources by increasingly taxing its colonies, such as the Sugar Act and Currency Act of 1764 and the Stamp Act of 1765. This taxation without representation in the British Parliament increased the feelings of discontent among the American colonists. Furthermore, they believed that they already contributed to the war effort by spilling their own blood in the process. This trajectory led to the declaration of American independence a decade later.