Eisenhower Doctrine

In the radically changing world order after World War II, the United States and the Soviet Union pushed for domination by their rival economic systems. Seeking to expand US influence against Communism, the Eisenhower Doctrine was born. Many areas that the colonizing powers of Europe had long controlled were experiencing instability under the relatively recent self-rule or struggled with colonizers who refused to give up their economic control. How were these struggles seen during the Cold War?

Fig.1 - Eisenhower and Nasser

Eisenhower Doctrine Definition

The Eisenhower Doctrine is a piece of Cold War-era foreign policy developed by the administration of President Dwight D. Eisenhower. It was presented to Congress in January 1947 before passing through both houses by March 1957. The new doctrine stated that the United States should aid Middle Eastern countries in their economic development to combat Communist influence. Even more consequently, it would allow the US to send military forces if requested by any Middle Eastern country fighting an outside Communist military threat.

Eisenhower Doctrine Cold War

The Cold War framed the Eisenhower Doctrine. The stated aims were to halt the spread of international Communism, a significant fear during the Cold War.

International Communism

The international spread of Communism was a rampant paranoia during the Cold War, but it was not entirely divorced from reality. Since 1919, the organization The Communist International, also known as Comintern, had been working to export Soviet-style Communism around the globe until 1943. From 1947 to 1956, another Soviet-backed organization called Cominform worked to coordinate Communist political parties in Europe. The Soviet-run organization, The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), was set to coordinate the activities of Communist nations from 1949 to 1991.

Eisenhower Doctrine History

Two significant events occurred in 1956 that led to the Eisenhower Doctrine. These were the Hungarian Uprising and the Suez Crisis. On one, the USSR fought to maintain control of one of its satellite countries; on the other, forcing the US into opposing its own NATO Allies. Although the doctrine applies to the Middle East, the USSR's involvement in reinforcing Eastern Europe Soviet Communism influenced US fears of Communist expansion.

Hungarian Uprising

After World War II, the USSR controlled Hungary and set up a USSR-backed Communist government that brutally repressed opposition and sunk the domestic economy. In October of 1956, a revolution occurred, beginning with students before expanding to even some members of the Hungarian Army that overthrew the Soviet-backed repressive Communist government. In November, the Soviet Red Army invaded, crushing the new government and anti-soviet resistance. Two hundred thousand fled as refugees, imprisoned tens of thousands, and executed hundreds.

Fig.2 - Suez Crisis

The Suez Crisis

Egypt had complex international relations, having made an agreement for independence from the UK and pursued peace with Israel. The situation devolved when Egypt nationalized the company controlling the Suez Canal, and Israeli raids on Egypt led to retaliatory attacks from Egypt. Tensions soared as England and France refused Egypt's attempt to pay in full those it had seized the company from, and Egypt opposed continued French and British economic control of the country. After Israeli forces moved on, Egypt, France, and the UK sent in their troops as the crisis spiraled out of control.

US Reaction to the Suez Crisis

The Suez Crisis was a complicated international conflict that tore the United States between opposing overt colonialism and opposing Communism while generating fears that a third world war would erupt from the conflict. On the one hand, the US wanted Egypt as a regional ally and could not support the colonial ambitions of France and the UK while condemning those of the USSR. On the other hand, the nationalizing industry was a precursor to Communism, and the US was worried that if it did not aid Egypt, the USSR would enter the conflict as Egypt's ally. The USSR was threatening to take a direct role in the conflict, and an attack by the USSR on NATO allies French and the UK would cause the US to intervene militarily on the side of NATO. The US pushed for and received UN condemnation of the invasion and applied economic pressures on the UK, resulting in a ceasefire and withdrawal of UK, French, and Israeli troops.

Eisenhower Doctrine Purpose

The actual purposes of the Eisenhower doctrine have been a matter of debate. Eisenhower framed his philosophy as Anti-Communist, but Arab leaders felt it was primarily about holding back Arab nationalism in favor of US imperialism. The reality of the 1950s was that the old imperial powers, such as France and Britain, could no longer project power as they had previously. The United States viewed all of these former colonies around the globe in terms of which superpower they would choose to align with, the US or the USSR. Journalist William Blum wrote that the Eisenhower Doctrine ignored issues like nationalism and concern about Israel, choosing only to view the Middle East in a Cold War context, ultimately forcing the region's struggles into a power play between the US and USSR.

Fig.3 - Camille Chamoun

Eisenhower Doctrine Significance

The Eisenhower Doctrine would not need to wait long for its first test and a reveal of what it meant in action. When Lebanese President Camille Chamoun attempted to violate the Lebanese constitution by seeking another term in office, a rebellion backed by Egyptian President Nassar tried to seize control. Chamoun asked for US help as outlined in the Eisenhower Doctrine, resulting in US Marines arriving to put down the rebellion against Chamoun. Although Communist involvement was Eisenhower's stated reason for the intervention, Secretary of State John Foster Dulles stated in a press conference that even if no Communists were found to be involved, it was still in the best interests of the US to protect its regional ally. Peace was restored, and new elections were held, resulting in victory for compromise candidate Fouad Chehab as the new president.